The name "Tel Aviv" is a poetic translation of the title of the utopian novel Altneuland by Theodor Herzl. It says "Tel" (multi-layer hillside) for "old" and "Aviv" (spring) for "new". The name is already present in the Biblical prophet Ezechiel, where he refers to a different place. For further information and to choose the name, see below.

The name "Tel Aviv" is often used in political literature and reports by international organizations as a placeholder for Jerusalem. This is to express the view that Jerusalem is not the capital of Israel, or to avoid distracting the controversy over the capital city from the real issue of publication.

The former name of Tel-v-Jaffa Tel-Jaffa Arabic is named Tel-Jaffa as ArabTofficial Abīb Yāfā. It is now only used in a few areas, such as traffic signs. The move to a minority language is linked to the demand by a democratic majority in the country for the Jewish nature of Israel to be more firmly anchored in the state. Official bilingualism has long been seen as an important expression of the democratic-secular state, especially externally, but it was also a domestic demand, for example, of Vladimir Zeev Jabotinsky, a right-wing thinker.

In 2018, the city had 451,523 inhabitants, making it the second largest city in Israel after Jerusalem. The greater area of Tel Aviv, called Gusch Dan, is a densely populated area with neighboring towns of Ramat Gan, Giw’atajim, Cholon, Bat Jam and Bnei Brak, which are located up to 14 km from the Mediterranean coast and is the largest urban area in the country, with some 3.8 million inhabitants. After Israel's founding, most countries set up their embassies in Tel Aviv, because Jerusalem's status was considered unclear under the UN's partitioning decisions.

After Israel annexed East Jerusalem in 1980 and declared "full and united Jerusalem" as the capital of Israel in the Jerusalem Act, the United Nations Security Council called in its resolution 478 for all states that had their embassies in Jerusalem to withdraw them. This is why almost all diplomatic missions are located in and around Tel Aviv today. The Tel Aviv Stock Exchange, the country's most important exchange, and Mossad, Israel's intelligence agency, are also headquartered here.

History of Jaffa

View of the port of Jaffa in 1906

Master Plan for Tel Aviv: the first version of Patrick Geddes's plan (1925);

Archeological excavations show that the coastal plains in the estuary of the Yarkon were routed by hunters and collectors of the culture of nature around 9000 years before our time. They became settled and developed forms of agriculture. According to the archeological findings, settlement continuity has existed since the middle Bronze Age. Approximately 3000 % C. the olive tree from the Caucasus was native to Palestine. Jaffa is published on Egyptian inscriptions around 2000 B.C. C. named Ipu. It was established by troops of Pharao Thutmosis III. In the 12th century B.C., in the 16th century, the town was occupied by the conquest of Joppe, then the area of Pu-Bau'lu. C. inhabited by the so-called Seven Peoples, the Philistines and the Canadians, while the non-seafaring Israelites settled mainly in the interior. It is believed to have been a place of worship for the deity of Derketo. In ancient times, the port was mostly in the hands of the Phoenicians, whose cedar supplies were transported to Jerusalem via Jaffa to build the first and second Jerusalem temple. From 587-539 v. C. Jaffa was in the Babylonians' power range, from 539-332 B.C. C. in which the Persian, and of 332-142 B.C. C. that of Hellenism.

In the Bible Joppe is mentioned as the port of Tarsis ships in the book Jona; also in the encounter of the Judaeo-Christian and Apostle Peter with the Roman officer Cornelius (Apostle History 10). In Joppe, the apostle Peter raised the Tabita and lived for some time in the house of Simon the Gerber (apostle story 9, 36-43). Greek mythology traces the fate of the Andromeda in Jaffa.

The Maccabeans and the Hasmoneans conquered the place during their revolt of 167-161 BC. C. After that, the Romans took the place. With the help of demobilized veterans, they built the port city of Caesarea Maritima on their Via Maris, which deprived Joppe of importance. During the reign of Julius Caesar, the town became 47 B.C. C. under Jewish administration. In the 1960s, Jaffa was a member of the United States . From 132-135 the area was shaken by the Jewish bar-Kochba revolt against the Romans. Jaffa was under the command of the Roman Procurator of the province of Judea. Under Constantine the Great the city became the seat of bishops. The rule of the Roman Empire ended around 330 and was replaced by Byzantium, which ruled Palestine until 636. This Greek-Roman period was generally characterized by cultural syncretism, which covered the Jews and the sometimes heavily aramised and polytheistic Arabs. Kallinikos of Petra became a teacher of rhetoric in Athens. Ancient authors used the term Arabs often only generic for nomads. The forming Christian communities were predominantly monophysical, and the Byzantine state church was therefore considered heretics.

In 622, the Hijra Mohammeds began the Islamic reckoning and thus the spread of Islam, soon to be in the southern Levant, which meant that Arabic soon became largely synonymous with Islamic in the outside. In 636, after the Battle of Jarmuk, warriors of the Caliphs ʿUmar ibn al-Chattāb conquered the place. From 661 to 750 the area was under the control of the Umayyads, followed by the Abbasids from 750 to 972 and the Fatimides from 972 to 1071. In 1071, the Seljuks of Turkmenistan defeated them and also embraced Jaffa. Apart from this nominal continuity, the often violent death of a ruler usually ended his state.

In 1099, Gottfried von Bouillon took over the city as part of the First Crusade. In the Middle Ages, Yaffa was important for both military and commercial activities. For the cruisers, Jaffa was the natural harbor closest to Jerusalem and had special strategic value. Arsuf fortress was located in the north near Jaffa. Jaffa had been fortified by Gottfried von Bouillon with the help of Venetians in 1100 and formed the center of a county. Venice received a quarter of all newly conquered cities in exchange for war services. Genoa and Pisa also combined a military foreign policy with their commercial interests in the Levante. In 1101, Balduin II was conquered. the reign of Jaffa and the knight of Eudes Arpin de Bourges was appointed as the seat of the town. In 1102, an Egyptian army of almost 20,000 men moved outside the gates of Jaffa, but had to leave without siege. Dagobert von Pisa, the first Latin patriarch of Jerusalem, had claimed the city without success. As the Count of Jaffa Hugo II. Rebesed by Le Puiset in 1134 against King Fulko, the county was divided into a series of smaller units, Jaffa himself became Krongut.

In 1187, after the defeat of the crusaders in the battle at Hattin, near Lake Genezareth, the Kurdish-born Ayyubiden-Sultan conquered Saladin Jaffa. On September 10, 1991, the Army of the Third Crusade under Richard Löwenherz occupied the city's ruins without a fight after it was cleared by Salad before the battle at Arsuf in the fall of 1190. At the end of July and August 1992, Saladin used a departure from Richard and some of his followers to Akon to seize himself in the siege and battle of Jaffa, but was eventually defeated. On September 3, 1992, Saladin assured the cruisers, who had been forced to return to a shoreline between Jaffa and Tyrus, of Jaffa's possession in a five-year ceasefire agreement. In 1229 the peace of Jaffa between Emperor Friedrich II was established here as part of the Fifth Crusade. and Sultan al-Kamil, after whom the francs received Jerusalem, among other things, without a fight.

In the kingdom of Jerusalem, the legacy of the throne was usually titled "Count of Jaffa and Askalon". Henry von Champagne left Jaffa to his daughters. After the death of Alice von Champagne, Jaffa fell to her daughter Maria of Champagne, who joined Walter IV. was married to Brienne. After Walter's death in 1246, Jaffa fell to Mary's brother, King Henry I. Lusignan. Between 1246 and 1247, Heinrich I stood. John of Ibelin with Jaffa. In 1260, the Mamluken invaded Egypt to the north under Sultan Baibars I. the city in a half-day siege, ended the reign of the crusaders and overcome the Muslims and many Christians who do not practice after the Roman rite as traumatically experienced foreign domination of the franc or Latin. One reason for the almost military nature of their presence was their very high infant mortality. The cruise states have, to a significant extent, renewed their population through ever-increasing and often much more violent European recruits, which have previously destroyed what had been achieved through diplomatic channels.

The title of a baron of Jaffa was continued after the evacuation of the city of nobles in the Kingdom of Cyprus. In addition to new groves (apricots, aubergines, shallots, watermelons, etc. ), cruisers also brought pigeon breeding to Europe. Similar to al-Andaluz, times of war followed periods of relative calm, allowing the franc to acquire knowledge of the Arabic language and Arabic medicine. The cruisers also promised help in the event of need from an alliance with the Mongolian Golden Horde that Philippe de Toucy had sought. The mammoths caused Jaffa to be largely destroyed and depopulated. From now on, social Sunnis dominated the Hafi legal school. With the restored sovereignty of Islam, Yaffa was now in the territory of the Dār al-Islam. Historically, this marked the beginning of a prolonged period of stability, but also of increasing stagnation.

In 1516 the city fell to the Ottoman Empire and regained its old economic importance. From the 1610s onwards, Jaffa became the target of British, Dutch, and Hanseatic merchant ships as a result of the increase in demand for cereals in the Italian states following Sweden's entry into the Thirty Years War. Cotton has become an important export product alongside sugar. Soap based on olive oil - Nabulsi soap - delivered the city of Nablus in the eastern hills. The capitulation of the Ottoman Empire from 1535 gave French, Venetian, and Genoese commercial establishments generous tax privileges and internal autonomy from the Ottomans. Managers and consuls conducted the internal affairs of the account assigned to foreign traders.

Increasingly, Jaffa was also a pilgrimage port on the way to Jerusalem and to other Loca Sancta, which remind Christians of Jesus' earthly life, and which had been accessible for pilgrimage since the 4th century. The expensive but safe trip to the sea in Venetian galleys with almost 100 pilgrims each lasted 30 to 40 days and began mostly in May and June. But less-meleed travelers often had to settle for ships that offered neither safety nor hygiene, as well as the risk of their own "sin" and the behavior of criminal travelers. Pilgrims were subject to the Lex peregrinorum, which, among other rights, granted them the right, at the time only a few had access to, to make a will before departure. The day on which the wife remaining at home was allowed to remarry if she did not return home was also determined. Authorities often declared missing pilgrims dead after 366 days. However, it appears that the Benedictine monk Dom Loupvent (ca. 1490-1550) from Lorraine pilgrimaged to Jerusalem in 1531: He took 245 days for the return trip (22 June-4 August) and the return trip (27 August-20 November) with all stays, as well as the journey from Jaffa to Jerusalem and back (4-27 August). His travels included Venice, Rovinj (Rovigno), Otrante, Iraklio (Candie) on the Venetian property of Crete, Limassol on the also Venetian Cyprus, Jaffa, Jerusalem, then again Jaffa, a place called Salins on Cyprus's southern coast, then a stop in a bay on the southern coast of the Peloponnese, the Greek islands Zakynthos (Zante) and Corfu, Rovinj and finally Venice again. He was astonished by the common prayers of Christians and Muslims at the Lazarus grave.

The Christian and Jewish population had, as owners of divine revelations and "people of the Scripture", a falsification (Arabic: Tahrīf) of the writings was accused of the legal status of the Dhimmi, she paid the head tax jizya, but also had the right to protection from arbitrary treatment, the most extensive professional freedom and the freedom to practice religion. Around 1665, the appearance of the alleged Messiah Shabbtai Zvi and his "Prophet" Nathan of Gaza set the Jewish community in motion. The Jewish bearer of hope from Smyrna moved freely in the eastern Mediterranean because the Ottomans offered their subjects freedom of travel.

Bonaparte visitant les pestiférés de Jaffa (Bonaparte visits the plague sufferers of Jaffa) after a presentation by Antoine-Jean Gros

In 1775, Jaffa was besieged and captured by mamlucans under Muhammad Bey Abu Dahab, and massacred the entire population. Coming from Gaza, which had taken over his troops on February 25, 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte Jaffa was besieged during his Egyptian expedition from March 4 to 7, 1799. The French officer, who was supposed to negotiate a non-combative handover of the city, was cut off from his head by Ottoman fighters and was thrown on a pole from the city wall down the French. A six-hour artillery shot was fired by the city and, after the conquest, the plundering and execution of commander Abu-Saab and almost 3000 prisoners. The bloodbath was justified by a lack of water and food to supply prisoners of war. At the same time, the plague broke out in Jaffa and sexual violence against women occurred in numerous cases. Napoleon then gave his military doctor, René-Nicolas Dufriche Desgenettes, a mandate to poison the ill French soldiers. In the following decades, plague and cholera repeatedly returned, benefiting from poor hygiene conditions. In 1806, the traveler François-René de Chateaubriand complained in Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem about the city's miserable state. Sugar and cotton have long been shipping mainly ports in the New World.

Modern Egyptian troops, Muhammad Ali Pashas, also invaded Jaffa in 1832 to conquer Syria and South East Anatolia, but it was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1841 onwards, following the military intervention of Europe's great powers in 1839. Muhammad Ali received the Ottoman recognition of his dynasty over Egypt and Sudan. The small Jaffa was thus under the control of the Sandshak of Jerusalem, on whose northern border it was. This sandchak was part of the province of Damascus. From 1840, the Tanzimat reforms of the economic and legal order gave a boost to the development of the construction industry. In 1842 paper money was introduced, in 1844 a census was carried out, and in 1847 the slave trade was officially banned. After 1841, with the pacification of the territory and the end of the fighting, soldiers of the armed forces Ibrahim Pashas had been settled with their families in Palestine. The majority of them were Egyptian farmers and whitefish, but they included Maghreb, Cherkessen and Bosniacs. Moreover, the Arab slave trade, which also runs along the Jida-Tabuk-Amman link, had brought a smaller number of people from Central and Eastern Africa to Jaffa.

Around 1840, about 200 Jews lived in Jaffa. From the 1820's, the Ottomans favored the establishment of Maghreb Jews, because they saw them as a counterbalance to the rising Arabs and hoped for good tax returns. Jews and Christians often paid substantial taxes and levies on so-called rights, including the possibility for Jews to pray at the hotel in Jerusalem. Since the post of a landlord or tax owner (gültezim) of the high gate was sold, incumbents tried to take as much as possible to make their buyout profitable. As a result, after the Crimean War, more Christian subjects of the Russian Empire moved to Palestine, trying to contend with France as the protector of Arab Christians. Russia has been making such claims since 1774 at the latest. Near Jaffa, the Imperial Orthodox Society of Palestine settled, overseeing a number of pilgrims, mostly rural and subsidized by the Tsar, who had risen to 14,000 people per year until the outbreak of World War I. Other foreigners and locals who enjoyed consular protection were also present. Jaffa had become a focal point for Western happiness seekers with capitalist interests, and a small local middle class emerged. After the Armenian genocide in Turkey, an Armenian Orthodox community was later formed in Jaffa.

men in the port of Jaffa in 1900: Travelers waited on pontoons to be taken to their ships anchored at sea.

From the 1860s there were scheduled steam ship connections from Marseille and Trieste, which brought pilgrims and tourists to the country. From 1867 onwards, the law guaranteed the property of foreigners. In 1884 the Park Hotel of the family of Ustinov was established. While previously mostly British heirs settled in spe on their Grand Tour in Jaffa, Thomas Cook's customers followed. On March 31, 1890 a French company started the construction of the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway line, which started operations on September 26, 1892. The elite was Westernized, with French, British, and US hospitals, mission schools, and universities influencing it. These were mostly located in the Arab metropolises of Beirut, Damascus and Cairo, where the wealthy families of Jaffa often spent almost the whole year. Further studies then led her sons to Europe. The al-Taji al-Faruqi family from Jaffa had 50,000 Dunam properties at the end of the nineteenth century. The land ownership of rich families had been arroned by Ottoman legislation from 1858, when farmers had unwittingly recorded their land rights in order to escape taxation. Some of the aristocrats, often heavily indebted, now sold already leased land to the new immigrants. This, too, has forced many peasants to flee their land and wage labor in cities in the Ottoman Empire, which has been increasingly denied by the increasingly socialist-minded Zionists, because they did not want to "exploit" Arab wage workers, but rather to build a purely Jewish economy.

The policy of Jewish pioneers followed the principle of "Jewish labor" (Hebrew: avoda ivrit), also referred to as self-reliance or conquest of work. Jews should be given a normal social structure made up of "farmers and workers." The other part of the same social view was "Jewish self-defense." Both were accused of Zionism as an imperialist plot, and Jews were segregating at the expense of the Arab population. Unlike the elite, many uprooted peasants sought to maintain traditional Islamic values. From their lower middle classes emerged the "Islamic Awakening" movement of Rifa'a at-Tahtawi, which sought to modernize Arab societies along French lines. Intellectuals like Khalil Beidas and the Jaffa newspaper, which was printed in 1911 and was in existence until 1967, also provided impetus for growing Arab national awareness. It was created at the initiative of the journalists Issa al-Issa and Yousef Hanna al-Issa. The newspaper's orientation was pan-Arab and Greek Orthodox. The frequent reference to the old traumas of the crusaders served to mobilize politics.

Sultan Abdülhamid II. suppressed the ideas of nationalism developed in Europe. The Arabic-nationalist and anti-Zionist (anti-Semitic) script Réveil de la nation arabe dans l'Asie turque (awakening of the Arab nation in Turkish-Asia) by the Lebanese Christian Negib Azoury had to appear in Paris from 1905. In 1911, the League of Arab Youth was established in Paris (Arabic: al-Fatât) by Mohammed Izzat Darwaza, whose members included students from Palestine. The decisions taken by almost half of the Christian conference participants in the French capital on 17 June 1913 included calls for political participation in the Ottoman Empire, for administrative reform and linguistic recognition. In Palestine itself, the pro-French al-Muntada al-Adabi (the Literary Club) and the pro-British al-Nadi al-Arabi (the Arab Club) were made up of young graduates and senior members of the security forces.

In the First World War, the Ottoman administration of Palestine forced Jews living in Jaffa to leave the city, because they were regarded as hostile citizens because of their Romanian or Russian origins. On November 16, 1917, Jaffa surrendered to British forces under the command of Edmund Allenby, ending Ottoman supremacy the following year. The expelled Jewish population had previously returned to the city by mediation of the German Empire, which was allied with the Turks. In 1915, the British promised Arab politicians an area from Adana (now Turkey) to Akaba (now Jordan), including Jaffas. In May 1916, Jaffa was in the area, which, according to the Triple Entente plans, should have been under common British, French, and Russian protectorates. But Arab promises did not materialize, either, because the comprehensive desertion of Arab soldiers from Ottoman associations was not forthcoming.

The Green House (1934), Arab eclecticism in the center of Jaffa

After the end of the First World War on the front of the Palestine, Islamic Christian committees formed, which drafted a program against the settlement of Jews in "South Syria" from 27 January to 9 February 1919 at the pan-Arab Allsyrian Congress in Jerusalem. But among Arab activists, who were utterly united in their rejection of Zionism, there was disagreement about the alternatives to be pursued, while Muslims were in favor of Palestine as an "inseparable part of Syria," Greek Orthodox Jaffas also supported a British protectorate; Catholic Arabs advocated a French protectorate. Moreover, the Arab population was divided among followers of the old political dynasties of the Husseini and Nashashibi. All-regional elites also competed against pan-Arabism, Lebanon, and Greater Syria. A homogenous Arabism, or even a unified and political Arab-Palestinian identity, was missing.

In 1920, tensions erupted at the Sanremo Conference as a result of political developments in Syria and the division of mandate areas. The secret Sykes-Picot agreement of May 1916 - a British-French balance of interests - was implemented contrary to promises to the contrary and against the will of the majority population. According to the text of its declaration of intent, if the mandate were to exercise guardianship over peoples "who are not yet able to lead themselves under the most difficult conditions of the world today". Mandate powers understood their geopolitical interference as "a sacred task of civilization." First, peaceful protests quickly became riots. In May 1921, they reached a peak in Jaffa's suburb, Neve Shalom. To defuse the situation, the divide-ruling British mandate power in power has banned several immigrant ships from landing in Palestine.

Arab protesters and British police officers (1933)

According to the 1931 census, the Jaffa territorial unit had 30,877 inhabitants, about 70% of them Muslims. By that time, the Arab population was already heavily proletarized, and kept blowing its frustrations with strikes. After fighting with the British police, in which a policeman and 22 protesters died in Jaffa in October 1933, and the politician Musa Kazim al-Husaini was seriously injured and later died, the movement became radicalized. Among Jaffa's Muslims, isolated neo-Salafi groups were formed, and Izz ad-Din al-Qassam was soon considered their most influential spokesperson in Palestine. His short-lived organization, the Black Hand, however, collapsed in the British crackdown and minimal mobilization. In 1936, the "Operation Anchors" conducted by the British Mandate Government to combat the Great Arab Revolt destroyed much of the old town of Jaffa. The minaret of the Hassan Bek Mosque was shot at passers-by. The Peel Commission's plan to keep Jaffa in a British zone, while Tel Aviv was to be added to a Jewish-administered zone, was to remedy the situation. On August 26, 1938, in a succession of violence and counter-violence, a bomb killed twenty-four visitors to an Arab market in Jaffa. The British, tired of both Arab and Jewish demands, published the White Paper in 1939, putting an end to their policy of friendly tolerance for Jewish immigration. These statements by the British government were an affront to the Zionists, David Ben-Gurion, who recruited Jewish volunteers for the British, said at a cionist congress in New York in 1942: "We are waging war on England's side, as if there were no White Paper, and we are fighting the White Paper as if there were no war."

In 1938, the modern port of Tel Aviv opened, which was supposed to make the jishuv, which was buried in a boycott, more independent and which meant that many workers in the port of Jaffa lost their jobs. Jaffa had already had a hard time competing with the pilgrimage ports of Alexandria and Beirut. In 1945, Jaffa had 101,580 inhabitants, of which 53,930 were Muslim, 30,820 were Jewish and 16,800 were Christian. While neighboring Tel Aviv, with a Jewish majority, was beaten to the Jewish state in the UN partition plan, Jaffa was originally intended to be the enclave of the Arab state. Even the day after the UN resolution of 29 November 1947, and even before the outbreak of violence, the majority of the Arab elite of Jaffas - civil servants, doctors, lawyers, businessmen, and their families - went into exile, often to near-abroad relatives.

street scene in the now predominantly Jewish Jaffa (admission from 1948/1951)

Easter in Jaffa (2011)

On May 14, 1948, during the Palestinian war, Jaffa was taken by Hagana and Irgun militias, and the British had since retreated. Reports of a massacre in the village of Deir Yasin, near Jerusalem, and deliberately spread false rumors about further attacks on the Arab civilian population, as well as threats, triggered a second, now significantly larger wave of refugees. The areas affected were the triangle between Jaffa, Jerusalem and the northern border of today's Gaza Strip, as well as Be’er Scheva, and in the north between Haifa, Safed and the border with Lebanon. The Arab inhabitants of Jaffa left the city mainly by sea and settled in Gaza, especially in the al-Shati camp. Many expected to return to their homes soon. In most cases, this amounted to material expropriation and meant the loss of the homeland. According to the historian Albert Hourani, the Arab brain drain of better-placed strata and the flow of their assets, preferably to countries outside Palestine, but also led to an increase in the Jordanian capital Amman. Inferior refugees often made integration in Jordan more difficult. As a result of what the Palestinians call Nakba, the flight or expulsion of a large part of the Arab population, their population in the city fell by some 65,000 to just under 5,000, and reached around 20,000 in 2017. The term Nakba is rejected by the majority of the Israeli population and the subject is largely taboo. The Nakba initially echoed only in the work of Israeli writers like Yizhar Smilansky.

The so-called Old Jaffa is now used mainly for tourism and houses numerous souvenir shops and private galleries. Jaffa's consumption-oriented revaluation as a tourist attraction took place only in the 1990s, with a significant part of the historical building stock removed. This was partly justified by the archeological excavations carried out in the course. Archeology is more often the subject of bitter political disputes in Israel, and in 2002 only two Zionist buildings in Old Jaffa were under the protection of the Israel Antiquities Authority, but none of the Arab buildings. The Ajami neighborhood, which is directly adjacent to the old town, was previously considered a "problem area" and a drug-handling site, a topic discussed in the film Ajami by Scandar Copti. A part of Jaffa has since been converted into a continuous nightlife area for the most paying visitors. In Jaffa, however, there are still institutions and churches of Arab Christians, as well as embassies, including the French. Jaffa, like other parts of the city, is subject to gentrification.

History of Tel Aviv

1909: The shareholders of the Terraingesellschaft Achusat Bajit loose building plots in the dunes

The Hebrew duchy school in Tel Aviv in the 1930s

The first villages in the territory of Tel Aviv today were in the south of Jaffa: From 1881 Yemeni Jews built here the agricultural hamlet Kerem HaTeimanim (Yemeni vineyard). Yemenis also turned to their traditional craft as a silver forge, and in 1900 they made up about 10% of the Jewish inhabitants of Palestine. Already before this first Jewish immigration, some 20,000 Jews of the Old Jishuv lived in Palestine. In 1887 the Sephards Aharon Chelouche, Chaim Amzalak and Joseph Moyal founded a settlement in front of the city with the ambitious name Neve Tsedek (oasis of justice), following a verse in the book Jeremia. In 1890 Neve Shalom was born. In 1904, Abraham Isaak Kook became Chief Rabbi of the Ashkenazi community. He created the ideological basis for the later religious Zionism of Gusch Emunim, then the view of a small minority, which some expected to dissolve. From 1871 onwards, in the hamlet of Sarona (1947 to Tel Aviv), the primitive Protestants of Württemberg, the Templars, were already working to build a modern agriculture in Palestine. In Jaffa's suburbs of Walhalla and American-German settlement in direct neighborhood to Tel Aviv (1948 with Jaffa to Tel Aviv), Templer pushed the industrial and commercial modernization of Palestine.

Tel Aviv's true story began in 1909 with the Terraingesellschaft Achusat Bajit (Hebrew) א ז ת י ת Achusat Bajit). The founding families included the family of the later Prime Minister Mosche Scharett. Achusat Bajit later joined two other new neighborhoods - the neighboring Binjamin and Geʾ ula. The new quarter was called Tel Aviv, the title of the Hebrew translation of the utopian novelty of Theodor Herzl by Nachum Sokolow, after the new name was decided on 21 May 1910 at a general meeting of the inhabitants of Achusat Bajits. Among the proposals were: New Jaffa - Jefefija ("The Beautiful") - Neweh Jafo ("Aue Jaffas") - ʾAvivah ("The Spring Sheds") - ʿIvrija ("The Hebrew") and finally Tel Aviv ("Spring Shirts"). Tel Aviv won. In Sokolov's poetic translation, Tel (ancient settlement hills) stands for "old", Aviv (spring) for "new". Tel Aviv - the "first Hebrew city" - soon became the refuge of many long-established Jaffa Jews.

Sokolov had taken the name from the book Ezechiel, in which the name refers to a place on the Kebar river in Babylonia where the Prophet receives his revelations: "This is how I came to the people who lived in Tel-Aviv" (Ez 3.15a ). These revelations state, among other things, that "once the entire scattered people of Israel will be returned to Israel." The underlying motivation of the Zionists, however, was primarily political and hardly religious. This Zionism, geared towards the Jewish foundation of the state, was the main direction of the movement, but competed for e.g. B. with the national-cultural Zionism, which posed demands for life in the diaspora. As an alternative to Zionism, the Algemeyner Yidisher Arbeter Association was established in Lite, Poyln and Russia (Bundisten). The Alliance of Israélite Universelle, also active in Jaffa since 1870, offered Sephardian Jews an identity focused mainly on France, even Italian imperialism tried to bind Sephardian Jews, such as in the Dodecanese, to Italy. Political Zionism took a different direction. 7. In 1905, the Zionist Congress in Basel made the final decision for the Zionist land grabbing in Palestine, and a Jewish settlement colony in Uganda, proposed in 1903, had been discarded.

On 11 April 1909, the pre-parceled plots in Achusat-Bajit were raffled by en:Akiva Aryeh Weiss in the presence of the founders of the district who had acquired shares in the company Achusat Bajit and their families: On 60 shells collected on the beach the same morning, he wrote the names of the members of the company in black ink and on another 60 shells the parcel numbers. During the lottery, a boy and a girl each drew a shell with number or name at the same time, so they decided who received which plot. This day is considered the founding day of Tel Aviv. First urban facilities according to plans of Boris Schatz, were first built in an ecleclecticism, architectural critics of the art nouveau style, Tel Aviv, therefore soon called the provincial "Klein Odessa". In this metropolis on the Black Sea, shaken by pogroms, some 200,000 Jews lived, many of them in abject poverty, reinforcing their desire to emigrate. Theodor Herzl's book The Jewish State often found its approval. In the Holy Land, Jews should at last be farmers again, some newcomers critically regarded this urban and individualistic lifestyle. Jaffa gained international renown with the export of Jaffa-Orange. Between 1880 and 1914, the main focus of Jewish agricultural settlement was to be found south and south-east of Jaffa. Another settlement was to be found in the north of Palestine, west of Lake Genezareth, where the first Kibbuz was established in 1910 in Degania. On 2 November 1917, Lord Arthur James Balfour, the British Foreign Minister, made a vague pledge for the first time in favor of "the establishment of a national home for the Jewish people in Palestine". The Balfour Declaration argued that "civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities" should not be violated.

The city's first kiosk (1910)

The coat of arms and the flag of the city contain two words from the Biblical book of Jeremiba under the red Star of David: "I (God) will build you, and you shall be built." (Jer 31,4)

A train on the way to Jaffa

11. On 18 May 1921, the connection with Jaffa was relaxed and Tel Aviv was given its own municipal administration as a partial autonomous township within Jaffa. This was the British response to the Yaffa riots of 1921. In June 1923, the Mandate Government, which belonged to Tel Aviv's township in Jaffa, also designated Jaffa's older northeast suburbs with predominantly Jewish inhabitants, such as Neve Tsedek (founded in 1887), Neve Shalom (1897), Machaneh Jehudah (187) 1896), Jefeh Nof (1897), Achawah (1899), Battej Feingold (1904), Battej Warshah, Battej Schmerling, Battej Joseph (1904), Kerem HaTeimanim (1905 and Ohel Moscheh (1906). In the spring of 1923, the first electricity plant in Tel Aviv came into operation, the Jaffa Electric Company, which soon ended the era of light bulbs and generators. Pinchas Ruthenberg, founder of the Anglo-Palestine Electricity Company, was the leading entrepreneur. Much to the disgust of the left-Zionist pioneers, whose ideal was no less than the "New Jew," Jewish immigration from 1925 onwards was made up of bourgeois and "capitalist" former small and micro-entrepreneurs. Inner-Jewish labor struggles have been fought, often with Arab workers participating in solidarity. Histadrut encouraged the emergence of Arab trade unions. On the left, Jewish Communists and the Palestine Arab Workers Society maintained close cooperation in the 1920's and 1930's. At the same time, in the wake of the Great Depression, some 25,000 Jews left Palestine in a short period of time for overseas colonies in Europe, most of whom were completely alien to Zionist ideology.

beach walk on a sunbath day of 1948

In 1923, the representatives of Neve Tsedeks and Neve Shaloms threatened that the future joint township would not commit itself to the parachute preservation of the parachutes, even in the enlarged Tel Aviv region, in the case of the dispute over the enforcement of even the adherence to the Jom Kippur religious parade, they threatened to seek the reorganization of their neighborhoods with Jaffa. For example, those responsible for the whole of Tel Aviv agreed to make an official commitment to the security of the shabby, but without the claim to be able to determine their compliance in private. In 1926, the Ashkenazi Great Synagogue was completed and the Sephardian Great Synagogue was built from 1925 to 1931. Numerous smaller Minjanim and bedrooms were built in the neighborhoods.

20. In January 1924, the inhabitants of the enlarged Tel Aviv elected for the first time their township council, which was held on 31 January 1924. of the month from his center Meir Dizengoff as mayor. In July 1926, Tel Aviv, the House Owners' Association, brought an indictment before the Palestinian High Court in Jerusalem, challenged the decision as to who was entitled in Tel Aviv to vote for the Township Council, as the statutes on the decision were ambiguous. The Supreme Court made a decision according to which only taxpayers would be entitled to vote, which excluded many who had previously been eligible for future elections. In December 1926, the city of Jaffa excluded the inhabitants of Tel Aviv from taking part in the municipal elections, but after protests Tel Avivis was able to vote on the 27th. In 1927, the two elected Dizengoff and Chaim Mutro.

The city commissioned Scots Patrick Geddes to develop a master plan for Tel Aviv, which he did in 1927-1929. Tel Aviv was to be designed as a garden city with mostly freestanding buildings in accordance with the principles of hygiene and modern urban construction. The city should be on the seaside, as it should become a new home, like New York and Buenos Aires. And the city, which Theodor Herzl visually imagined was similar to Vienna, should have healthy sea air, because Zionists saw thousands of Jews dwelling in stuffy gangster houses in the central European metropolises plagued by dizziness. But the Geddes Plan was only implemented in initial ways, because private investors often obey their own financial interests, exposing them to intense public criticism. As a result, only half of the 60 planned parks could actually be built. From 1927 onwards, the labor and industrial district of Florentin was built for Jews from Thessaloniki. The eastern Shapira district was home to Uzbek immigrants. For example, the wealth gap between the northern districts of the city, populated by leftist ideals or Haskala members, and the economically weaker Mizrachim in the south of the city, which felt socially disadvantaged, and were mostly, because they had little capital and Western education. They were often met with suspicion, and their Jewish-Israeli identity had to be demonstrated. This problem intensified especially after the founding of the state, with the large influx of culturally Arab Jews.

Tel Aviv was granted full independence from Jaffa on 12 May 2006. The city used the name ʿIr (city) since March 1921, when it was declared a separate city under the Palestinian Municipal Corporation Ordinance (English Municipal Corporation Ordinance). With the rise of National Socialism in Germany, housing demand grew; Therefore, contrary to the original intention, it had to be built quickly, functionally and cost-effectively by architects such as Richard Kauffmann, Wilhelm Haller, Erich Mendelsohn, Lotte Cohn, Leo Adler, Arieh Sharon, Genia Awerbuch, Dov Karmi, or Yehuda Magidovitch, all architects committed to the principles of the Bauhaus and the International Style . Zeev Rechter also received a student from Berlin architect Erich Mendelsohn in Tel Aviv, and Shmuel Barkai had studied at Le Corbusier, an international designer. However, they made numerous functional concessions to the conditions of the Levant and adapted their plans accordingly, because the climate of Palestine was already rich in contrasts: "On brutal hot days, cold nights followed by wild rainshowers times of cloudless drought, hot south winds following icy north storms", Egon Friedell described it in 1936. The architects also created the modernist designs for the pavilions of the Levante Fair in today's Old North. The Weissenhof settlement in Stuttgart, which the Nazis denounced as "Jewish-Bolshevik" or "Kulturbolschevistic", also served as a model.

1930s Bauhaus style on the left and 1920s Levantine eclecticism on the right in Neve Tsedek

The Basel street around 1939

The Haa'avara agreement allowed refugees from Germany, German construction materials, and other goods, such as machines that seemed useful for the new start, to import into Palestine, which they paid from their deposits in Germany. From December 1931, direct cross-border financial transactions included taxes on the Reichsfluchttax, the tax rates of which the Nazis repeatedly raised to deter holders of assets in Germany, regardless of religion or nationality, from exporting their bank assets through high taxation, or to tax them, thereby forcing refugees to leave without means. Among the new olim were many members of the assimilated bourgeoisie, for whom there was not always a suitable job, and the jeckes, as the Germans and Austrians were called mocking, displayed their formality. The word went round, and you were on construction sites with "Please, Doctor! - Thank you, Doctor!" bricks handed. The jacks in the heat also didn't like to separate from their jacket. They lived in the social canton of Ivrit ("no sound Ivrit"). Some Zionist politicians have led this to increase the immigration of more easily integrated Polish immigrants. On June 16, 1933, the Berlin-trained economist and left-wing Zionist Chaim Arlosoroff was found murdered on Tel Aviv beach.

While the Arab population in nearby Jaffa remained unaffected by any expulsion, it continued to grow, German immigrants brought with them, in their spiritual luggage, in addition to the promise "A land without people for a people without land" attributed to Israel, other beliefs that did not even arouse interest in their new Arab neighbors. In 1935, Alfred Weber classified cultural history as sociology of culture, Islam as a "secondary culture", and the Islamic scientist and Prussian Minister of Culture Carl Heinrich Becker described: "[Islam] is nothing more than living, but in the long run, increasingly Asiatic Hellenism." Individual initiatives for understanding the Arab population nonetheless took place between 1925 and 1933 by the Brit Schalom group. To deal with the Arabs became the task of selected Arab Jews and Mista’aravim and remained a purely secret service activity. The majority deliberately supplanted this part of reality.

From February 1939, the Reichszentrale für Jewish Emigration (Reichszentrale für Jewish Emigration) carried out the forced emigration of about 30,000 Jews. 66,848 people fled Austria until October 1941. In total, the 5th Alija 197,235 refugees. In July 1941, non-Jewish Palestine Germans living in the district of Sarona were extradited to Australia for internment. Her German school Sarona initially became the headquarters of the Jewish relief police Notrim. The municipal police also dealt with Jewish delinquents, which had been around for some time for the great satisfaction of the future Israeli national poet Chaim Nachman Bialik. When a certain Renzel, the first thief arrested in Tel Aviv, was arrested in the 1920s, he said: "We will not be a normal people until there are finally Jewish policemen, Jewish prostitutes and Jewish bandits in our streets."

Postcard from Haifa to Tel Aviv dated 27 March/May 1947: "My dear Wolfi, you have chosen a really nice place to relax for us and we thank you again for that. The air is beautiful, the living is very comfortable and the food in quality and quantity is first class. Hopefully we will be able to reciprocate with you in the same way. Greetings. kiss Dad and Mom."

The Dizengoff Square in the heart of the White City in the 1940s

Tel Aviv's northern surroundings (1944)

In 1939, 90% of the Jewish population lived in the cities, because in the early 1940's, the area covering around 20% of the agricultural land, which had been purchased mainly by the Jewish National Fund of Arab Latifundi owners, was unable to host more people. Yet rural life in Kibbuz and Moshaw determined the image that Zionism spread. According to the Israeli Orientalist Yehoshua Porat, 52.6% of the sellers were Arab owners living outside Palestine until March 1936, 13.4% of the country had sold churches and government, 24.6% were previously owned by local notables and their families. Unlike neighboring Jaffa, Tel Aviv was a Jewish settlement with a majority population from the beginning. Under the United Nations partition plan for Palestine, Tel Aviv was therefore envisaged as part of the Jewish state. The city grew rapidly because, along with Haifa, it became the main port of arrival for Jewish immigrants to Palestine. In 1926, Tel Aviv had 40,000 inhabitants, compared to 150,000 in 1936.

In the Second World War, on 9 September 1940, Tel Aviv was bombed by Italian aircraft, causing severe damage and more than 200 people lost their lives. Another air attack followed in June 1941. The fear that the Axis forces would advance to Palestine across North Africa spread in the Yishuv, when Italian and German units were on the verge of Cairo in 1942, and King Faruk I, who was devoted to Italian fascism. had spoken out in favor of his country's neutrality, which is why part of Zionist leadership was evacuated to Britain. Tel Aviv became the point of contact for allied forces for transit or recreational holidays, including New Zealand and Australians, as well as for Polish armed forces of the Soviet Union, which is still reminiscent of a Polish graveyard in Jaffa. Members of the Free French Army and Greek Armed Forces were also waiting for their deployment. In El-Alamein, these British-led associations have stopped the German advance. Despite a profound standstill by the armed Jewish movements Haganah and Irgun against the British Mandate Forces, the Lechi group, which initially comprised 200-400 members, attacked their security organs, as the British continued to maintain a restrictive immigration policy for Jews to Palestine after first reports of the Holocaust. In 1942, the Lechi had a bomb that killed three police officers in Tel Aviv on 20 January 1942. On November 6, 1944, the British colonial minister, Lord Moyne, died in a murder attack by the Lechi in Cairo.

The burning Altalena in front of Tel Aviv

The British, who prevented ships, such as Struma or Exodus, from landing in Palestine, based on the protection of the interests of the resident Arab population, feared "another Ireland," and the Arab's drifting into the Axis's camp. Confirmed news of mass murders of Jews in Europe led to large-scale demonstrations in Tel Aviv. The British, however, only allowed Youth Aliyah. The rest of Jewish immigration took place mostly illegally until the end of the mandate and from 1945 onwards on ZIM ships. 50,000 passengers of intercepted vessels were detained in Cyprus. In 1947, before the outbreak of the Palestinian War, Tel Aviv had already 230,000 inhabitants.

Although survivors of the Nazi genocide, the Displaced Persons, were able to travel to Eretz Israel after the end of the British mandate, after often several years in German DP camps, the fate of the survivors, who were often physically and mentally broken, had only a very small share of the public discourse in the new state, rather the ideal of defensive, efficient and future-optimistic gene (male) pioneers or tzabar. The ideal counteracted the self-image and anti-Semitic caricature of the "dwelling" Jews. Since Zionism was also a movement of Jewish self-criticism, this overlap arose. Even David Ben-Gurion, Mapai politician and executive head of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, criticized the survivors' ability to integrate in the country. The prevailing attitude in the Jishuv coincided with the fact that on 22 March 1946, the head of the German Templar Society and Nazi propagandist Gotthilf Wagner was arrested and killed in Tel Aviv. The act was one of the first so-called targeted killings in Israel. In June 1948, 19 people died in an outbreak of violence between Jewish associations during the discharge of arms from the freighter Altalena, who was sinked in front of Tel Aviv. France had supplied 153 million francs of weapons on the ship, thereby securing political influence and other export transactions. The US and the USSR were also among the first supporters of the nascent state of Israel.

After independence

The Israeli declaration of independence, adopted on 14 May 1948 in the Independence Hall on Rothschild Boulevard, established the State of Israel. The Egyptian air force bombed Tel Aviv. From 1948 to 1951, Yemeni, Iraqi, and Egyptian Jews arrived in Israel in large numbers. On April 24, 1950, Jaffa was connected administratively with the former suburb of Tel Aviv, also known as an annex. The name of the unified city was initially Tel Aviv. On 19 August 1950, it was renamed Tel Aviv-Jafo to obtain the historical name Jaffa. With much needed money from the controversial Luxembourg agreement - the so-called reparation agreement with the Federal Republic of Germany - infrastructure was further expanded from 1952 onwards, while German industry benefited from it. Food processing companies, such as Strauss, were given machines, which helped to counter the rationing and widespread black market of everyday goods. Exports also included arms supplies. Konrad Adenauer founded the aid in 1965 both morally and with the "power of the Jews", which "still" should not be underestimated today" and called the openly anti-Semitic Rolf Pauls ambassador to Tel Aviv. Opposition politician Menachem Begin, having spoken ill of such dealings, later left relations with the German Democratic Republic to cool significantly, seeing all Germans in a collective guilt.

The years 1955-1957 and 1961-1964 brought fresh waves of immigrants from Arab-speaking countries, which was unsuccessfully challenged by a political minority of Knesset MP Peretz Bernstein. The official introduction of the also semitic language Ivrit, mediated in Ulpan, and the displacement of the Yiddish from urban life facilitated their linguistic integration. These immigrants had to be retrained 80% after their arrival, as most of them had previously worked as merchants. They usually had no years of preparation for life in Israel and often spoke only synagogue-Hebrew. They usually found accommodation only in barracks. The school history of children from Mizrachim families was often stony. In 1967, the Jewish Swiss writer Salcia Landmann thought she had to report: "Teachers and educators in Israel generally complain about the sometimes weak talent and low appetite of children of immigrants from Arab countries." The administration of justice has been much harder for these young people, and especially for young Arabs. This mix of rigor and paternalism displayed by the mostly left-leaning Ashkenazi elite also included the fact that, as Salcia Landmann does immediately after that quote, they generally supported "blurring marriages" between Ashkenazim and the most politically right-leaning Sephardi Mizrachim. However, in 1967, only 15% of mixed marriages existed in Israel for the time being. In the 1970s, however, society became convinced that it was better to leave part of the culture of origin to new immigrants.

In Yiddish, "the jargon of the cowardly diaspora Jews" to break with the past, surrenders family names. The connection with Europe should be cut, the new Jew, as Mosche Shamir wrote, "born from the sea". Only the politically inferior Eichmann trial in Jerusalem led to a reassessment of the diaspora in the 1960s. In 2366 , the survivors of the USS Voyager were killed in a bomb attack. David Ben-Gurion, who had begun the process, initially sought to enlist the Holocaust in the continuity of anti-Semitic pogroms. Under the governments of Golda Meir and Menachem Begin, however, human crime was subsequently reinterpreted as the central cornerstone of Israel's right to exist. School trips to Yad Vashem and even to Oświęcim, Poland, are intended to strengthen the Jewish-Israeli identity. In the 1970s, a new interest in the culture of the diaspora arose, which, for example, gave rise to the success of the singer Chava Alberstein. The Jewish Spanish Ladino was also revived in Tel Aviv. In 1984, an exhibition in the Tel Aviv Museum of Art brought the revaluation of the architectural heritage and the previously unknown name of White City, several authors argued that this urban planning is based on identity political motives. Now, the proportion of Israelis with a Holocaust-style family history is falling. Non-Ashkenazi Jews, such as Rabbi Ovadja Josef, often behave insensitive to them.

The city became the center of urban life in Israel and continued to grow: After the immigration of Jews expelled from Germany - the so-called Jeckes - by 1936 built a settlement along the sea, new districts emerged in the east between 1950 and 1960, where later, mainly in 1984 and 1991, which often saw lower payments Ethiopian Jews settled, while, from 1975, wealthier families moved to Ramat Aviv in the north and to the east and south. Less suitable structures for social cohesion were also created, with a lot of concrete, for example in the style of brualism. Easily and sparsely built neighborhoods, consisting of mostly state-subsidized housing - known as Shikunim - developed the problems of a metropolitan banlieu. Since the 1990s, the frequent stress-related population pressure, further compaction and post-compaction, and an increasing number of high-rise buildings have once again greatly altered the image of the city, and thus the social structure, through the associated gentrification. Meanwhile, the dark-skinned Ethiopian Jews are not visible in downtown life. They, who often feel marginalized and discriminated against despite state-sponsored action, remain at a distance from the White City. In 2015, police attacks on Ethiopian Jews led to ongoing protests in Tel Aviv.

The transformation of Tel Aviv into a high-rise town began in 1962, when the Union Histadrut had the architecturally valuable Herzlia-Gymnasium abandoned to create space for the Schalom-Meir tower. The loss of this cultural heritage led to the first initiative for the protection of monuments in the city. The first shopping center was established with the Dizengoff Center. In 2006, Tel Aviv-Jaffa had 385,000 inhabitants, compared to 433,000 in 2015. The Israeli state is making efforts to distribute the population in the country and cities such as Ashdod and Be’er Scheva in the south of Israel are being continuously developed. While schooling and military service lead to rapid adaptation of the children of new immigrants, the idealized ideas of Israel that exist with their parents are usually not against reality, and Israelis are often experienced with roughness and indifference. The attitude of those already living in the country is often ambivalent, as each new Alija is offered a better initial condition. At the same time, there has always been a slight exodus of Jews from Israel. According to the ideological concept of the Alija, which means climbing, emigration is called descent - Jerida -.

The Hassan Bek Mosque with tower blocks for hotels and offices of the 1990s and 2000s (2014)

By consolidating the political right, which was established in Israel from the outset with liberal-conservatives like Chaim Weizmann or revisionism, the 1977 election of Menachem Begin gave concrete expression to political discourse, and in the era of Benjamin Netanyahu, with the support of the populist and often anti-Semitic international right, the political discourse has become a remarkable alienation between Israel and the predominantly left and liberal Jews in the western diaspora ceased. Authors such as Yoram Kaniuk and politicians - like Shimon Peres in 1996 - have, from a contrary perspective, raised a fundamental conflict of interest between Jews and Israel, sometimes calling a reconsideration of the diaspora desirable. The New Israel Fund also supports projects seeking compensation with the Palestinians. Yet Tel Aviv remains an important reference point for her, as for economically liberal to neo-conservative Jews, mainly in the United States. The latter have repeatedly advocated the privatization of state and trade union enterprises in Histadrut. Since these people are mostly temporarily in Tel Aviv, this reinforces the leisure orientation of people in the city, whose working hours, especially in highly qualified areas, often depend on the office hours of San Francisco or Los Angeles. A well-known dictum therefore says "praying Jerusalem, Haifa works - and celebrating Tel Aviv". This hedonism is often blamed on the sterile nonstop City Tel Aviv in Israel and the diaspora. The emotional allegiance to Israel called Ahavat Israel is often associated with criticism, and with the question of how and by whom this criticism can be voiced. For example, the so-called BDS campaign is accused of unfair motives.

Tent protest against priceless housing on the Rothschild (2011)

Rainbow flags on the occasion of Tel Aviv Pride on Hilton Beach

The very high cost of living, which is also very high for Israeli conditions, and the increased social inequality created by the dismantling of the welfare state led to the protests of 2011-2012. The outbreak of the COVID 19 pandemic in Israel recently exacerbated the often precarious income situation. However, Tel Aviv also officially maintains its image as an international party metropolis with tolerance for homosexuals and the Tel Aviv Pride event. Its interests include the organization Agudah for Gays, Lesbians, Bisexuals, and Transgender in Israel. Today, many non-Jewish workers from Eastern Europe and South and East Asia live in the city. Moreover, post-Soviet immigration brought into the country many people who, according to Halki, do not qualify as Jews, which regularly leads to debates about who is Jewish? . In 2019, some 300,000 people were affected in Israel. They are under pressure of legitimacy, especially when marriages are held under the supervision of the Orthodox Rabbi, and many prefer to marry abroad. The most popular wedding destination is Cyprus. Soviet Jews were 90.5% Russian-speaking in 1989, something that is evident in everyday life to this day. The Russian government is trying to maintain its ties. In tourism and pilgrimage there is a continuing strong interest of non-Jewish Russians in Israel.

Another group of people are so-called New Jews, which include different groups of people newly recognized as Jews, including the Falasha Mura. The non-Jewish refugees living in Tel Aviv have come mainly from sub-Saharan Africa since 1990. 140,000 people were expelled in 2000, and a part of the refugees remain in the country. Their residence status is often uncertain. Many refugees hope to use Israel as a transit country. In 2012, Culture Minister Miri Regev called her "a cancer in Israel's body". With the waves of immigration from post-Soviet Aliyah countries largely suppressed after a new rise in the war in Ukraine, France, most recently French Jews, has settled in Tel Aviv-Jaffa, owing to the growing threat of anti-Semitism. Israel offers them a kind of "security guarantee," and many bought self-contained apartments in Tel Aviv-Jaffa. The main cause of this movement was a series of extremely brutal murders of Jews in France's conurbations. The victims, such as the 85-year-old Mireille Knoll, were inconspicuous French, which, despite the fact that the security situation is in fact stable, often leads to the conclusion that Jewish people must leave France to know the children in particular. Many French people work in Tell Aviv in French-speaking call centers. A French school in Neve Tsedek and numerous shops advertise the offer of these immigrants, who are considered to have a buying power.

In Tel Aviv, at a peace rally held by Schalom Achshaw, with more than 100,000 participants held on 4 November 1995 in the Square of the Kings of Israel (now Rabin Square), Prime Minister Yitzchak Rabin was the victim of a political murder. The people of Tel Aviv were shocked to learn that the perpetrator was Jewish. This trauma led many to believe in Israel's "innocence." The city is the stronghold of the secular Jews in Israel (about 40% of the total population), in which, contrary to developments in the rest of the country, and in particular in Jerusalem, the social democratic party Awoda and the secular parties Yesch Atid and Meretz continue to largely dominate local politics. Bnei Berak, however, has established itself as an Orthodox or "ultra-Orthodox" location in the Tel Aviv-Jaffa metropolitan area. Today, some of the city's secular inhabitants are once again acquiring religious knowledge in the so-called secular Jeschivoy. These schools mostly connect younger people, who experience that the Jewish religious way of life is captured by orthodoxy, because liberal Judaism and conservative Judaism in Israel in general have a hard time. In addition, Christian free churches, such as Messianic Jews, also make religious offers. Abroad evangelicals have an increasing influence on political development, especially in the West Bank.

Theodor Herzl, postmodern (2013)

The popularity of Tel Aviv's disaffected efforts to find a solution to the peace has led to a widespread perception that the so-called Iron Dome is becoming apolitical. This resignation stems, among other things, from today's feeling among many left-wing voters that Israel has "no partner for peace" on the Palestinian side. This is also increasing pressure on Israeli Arabs in Jaffa. In 2014, Jisra’el Beitenu's party called for the "voluntary relocation" of Arabs from "Jaffa or Akon". It sounds similar from the Tkuma party. Even the most loyal Druze feel marginalized: On August 4, 2018, 50,000 Druze and as many Jews demonstrated in Tel Aviv against the new national law. The hardest opponents of "foreign-policy" concessions, in the sense of the Israeli left's call for "land for peace," are the national religions, while in Tel Aviv there is open discussion of post-ideological approaches. Some are also more likely to embrace non-political movements like veganism. The political left - which Israel has built, waged several wars, and now considers the "Zionist project" to be largely realized - is regularly called "left cowards" or "traitors." The horrendous discourse of the far right is wandering from Facebook to the streets and squares, right-wing counter-demonstrators like La Familia are threatening anti-government demonstrations in Tel Aviv. However, a significant part of the urban population is turning away from ideological premises. Ironically alienated pieces of Zionism and Theodor Herzl's counterfeit become post-modern icons in Tel Aviv's streets.

terrorist attacks

• On 19 October 1994 (21 dead) and in July 1995, public institutions in Tel Aviv were the target of terrorist attacks. Further attacks in the city followed in spring 1996. These attacks accompanied and undermined the peace process at the time.

• On 1 June 2000, 21 young people were murdered on Tel Aviv beach and dozens more were seriously injured when a suicide bomber exploded into the air with a metal-filled bomb.

• On 23 January 2001, the two owners of the sushi restaurant Yuppies were kidnapped and murdered by Palestinians in Tel Aviver Sheinkin Street, Motti Dayan (27) and Etgar Zeitouny (34). The years 2000 to 2005 were the years of the Second Intifada.

• On 14 February 2001, a Palestinian man traveled to a crowd by bus near Tel Aviv, killing eight people.

• On June 1, 2001, a 22-year-old Palestinian exploded himself in front of the Dolphinarium disco in Tel Aviv. The suicide attack killed 21 people and injured more than 100.

• On 5 March 2002, a Palestinian assassin killed three Israelis in two restaurants in the center of Tel Aviv and injured more than 30. The dead were the Israeli policeman Salim Barakat, 52-year-old Yosef Haybi and 53-year-old Eli Dahan.

• On March 30, 2002, a suicide bomber blew himself up at Cafe Bialik at the junction Allenbystraße/King George and Chermichovskystrasse. More than 30 people were injured, some seriously.

• On 5 January 2003, two assassins in the south of Tel Aviv exploded into the air almost simultaneously and only a few hundred meters apart. They killed 23 people and injured another 100, and several buildings were damaged. The attacks were accompanied by the Islamic Jihad in Palestine and the Al Aksa Brigades.

• On 1 November 2004, a suicide bomber on the Carmel market set fire to a bomb that killed three people and injured about 30. The People's Front for the Liberation of Palestine declared itself to be a deed.
• On 10 November 2014, a 20-year-old soldier at HaHagana railway station was seriously injured with a knife by an alleged perpetrator of Nablus's ‘nationalist motives’.

• On 21 January 2015, in an attack on a bus operated by urban transport, several people were injured, five of them medium to severe. The attacker, who took a knife on the passengers, was a 23-year-old Tulkarem Palestinian who did not have a residence permit for Israel. He was shot and arrested near the scene of the crime.

• On 19 November 2015, a Palestinian attacker in an office building in the south of Tel Aviv stabbed two people and injured another person.

• On 1 January 2016, in the center of Tel Aviv, a Palestinian shot two people at the bar Simta, injuring seven others. On 8 June 2016, two Palestinian attackers shot four people and seven others were seriously injured. The attack took place in the Sarona district in the city center.

• On February 9, 2017, a 19-year-old Palestinian in the suburb of Petach Tikwa opened fire on the visitors of a market and stabbed them with a knife. Six people were slightly injured.

Mayors of Tel-Aviv-Jaffa (until 1950 Tel Aviv) are:

The symbolic key for Tel Aviv, which was handed over in 1992 as the occasion for the foundation of the town twinning with Sofia

The city of Tel Aviv has signed a partnership agreement (in time) with the following cities in the world:

Tel Aviv

printing house of the daily Haaretz

The Herta and Paul Amir Building in Tel Aviv Museum of Art

Tel Aviv offers a heterogeneous architectural picture, and the so-called White City (Hebrew) is the most outstanding feature of the project ה י ר ל, ha'ir ha-lewana), an inventory of more than 4,000 buildings in Tel Aviv, mostly built in a Bauhaus and International style. From the 1930s, these were built by numerous architects who had fled from Nazism after studies in Dessau and Berlin or Rome and Paris. The buildings are concentrated in the districts of Kerem HaTeimanim and Merkaz Hair and have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2003, as they meet two of the ten possible UNESCO selection criteria. The new Bauhaus Center is located on Dizengoffstraße. Guided tours to Bauhaus buildings begin here. The Bauhaus is also the work of the Beit Liebling Museum (built in 1936/1937) and the Bauhaus Foundation Tel Aviv, co-financed by the Federal Republic of Germany. A few meters away are the residential museums of Chaim Nachman Bialik and Reuven Rubin, the Felicja Blumental Music Center and Library, in memory of Felicja Blumental and the former town hall of the city, Beit Skora, also a museum today. The Scholem-Alejchem-Museum informs about the life and work of Scholem Alejchem, an important writer of Jewish literature. The works of his colleague Achad Ha'am, on the other hand, appeared in Hebrew.

Tel Aviv is the site of numerous publishers and newspapers whose most famous liberal label is the Hebrew and English daily newspaper Haaretz founded by Salman Schocken. An important date in the cultural calendar is the Hebrew Book Week, which has been in operation since 1959. Bookshops are relatively rare in Tel Aviv-Jaffa, which is helped by the abolition of fixed book prices in 2016, and the most common supplier is the retail chain Steimatzky. There are also several antiques on Allenby Street, a legendary but now neglected shopping street in the city center. Tel Aviv's often left-wing publishing houses, the Israeli film industry, and Western-style classical music, are under criticism from the right.

The historical district of Neve Tsedek, located further south, opened Tel Aviv's first cinema with the Eden on 22 August 1914. Four years later, the dancer Baruch Agadati gave his triumphant appearance here. In the traffic-calmed neighborhood, now dominated by boutiques and scene cafés, you will find the Museum of the Menuhin Gutman painter, the Suzanne Dellal Center for Dance and Theater, the local history museum Beit Rokach, and the cultural center Neve Schechter in the Lorenz House (built in 1886) with a synagogue of the Masorti movement. Not far from here, the long-neglected district of Florentin, founded by the Greek entrepreneur David Florentin, is located. Until 1933, the district was a refugee camp for 53,000 displaced Jews from Thessaloniki. In the late 1990s, young creatives, garages and abandoned buildings began to function as bars and studios. Alternative culture and gentrification are now increasingly crowding out low-wage earners and traditional furniture stores. The district is well known for its type of street, including the melancholic works of the artist Know Hope, born in Tel Aviv in 1981. The gallery scene is expanding increasingly into the industrial area of Kiryat Hamelacha, which is just south of Florentin.

View of Jaffa on Tel Aviv's skyline at night

The Rothschild Boulevard is home to the Independence Hall (Bet ha-ʿAzmaʾ ut). On May 14, 1948, David Ben Gurion declared the state of Israel at the site of the present museum. In front of the museum there is a memorial to the construction of Tel Aviv with a Bible quotation from the book Jeremia (Jer 31,4 ). The Tel Aviv Museum of Art displays classical and contemporary art. The Eretz Israel Museum documents history and archeology. The history of the Jews in the diaspora is documented by the museum Beit Hatefutsot. The Ben-Gurion Museum is located at the former second residence of the politician. The Hagana Museum is a museum of the history of the Jewish underground organization, forerunner of the Israeli army IDF. The Palmach Museum in Ramat Aviv is dedicated to a special unit of Hagana. It's at the Eretz-Israel Museum in the north. Yitzchak Rabin is dedicated to the Yitzchak Rabin Center. It is located between the Eretz-Israel Museum and the Museum of Palmach, which included Rabin at a young age. On Rabin Square, a monument by the sculptor Yael Artsi recalls his murder.

Also worth a visit is the Lutheran Immanuelkirche in the American Colony founded in 1867 (ה מ ש ה ha-moshawa ha-ʾ american ʾ it). The Charles Bronfman Auditorium is home to the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra and the largest concert hall in the city, with 2482 seats. This is followed by the building of the Israeli national theater Habimah, founded in Moscow in 1931. His dramaturgons included Max Brod, one of the few Jewish literary intelligence members in the German-speaking region who chose an exile in Israel. While Franz Kafka, whose manuscript Brod brought to Tel Aviv, learned Ivrit with varying degrees of determination, an Alija was not an option for Franz Werfel, who was close to her, his flight led him to the US via Portugal. Even more negative was the attitude of Professor Victor Klemperer of Dresden, who wrote: "[I] can only present the history of mind, and only in German and in a completely German sense. I have to live here and die here." Accordingly, cultural life was built in a often militant demarcation to the diaspora, such as the Tmu-na theater, which has existed since 1944, and the Cameri Theater. Since 1988, the Yiddish Theater has maintained the tradition of Jewish theater.

From 14 to 18 May 2019 Tel Aviv was the venue for the 64th edition of the 64th edition. Eurovision Song Contest because Netta won the 2018 Lisbon competition with her song Toy. The current main direction of Israeli pop music is Greek-Arabic influenced Mizrahi music. Western music styles range from Hebrew reggae to rap to independent. Fatalism sometimes joins the mainstream: The Rapper Tuna video of the success song Rock 30 (Rock Schloschim) contrasts private childhood memories of the confident time of the 1990s with the worldview of the disillusioned 30-year-old without professional and personal perspectives that makes pure survival party.

Jaffa

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View of Jaffa's Old Town

Attractions of Old Jaffa and South Jaffa include the clock tower (built in 1906), the Kikar Kedumim excavation site, the Al-Saraya al'Atika Palace (Governor's New Palace), the Jaffa Light from 191 865 (Hebrew: מ ג ל ו ר י), the mosque Muhamidiya, the Libyan synagogue Khan Zunana, the Andromeda Rocks, the Jaffa Museum of Antiquities, the home of the former Palestine Office in Rechov Resi'el 17, the Ilana Goor Museum, Green house in the style of Arab eclecticism (built in 1934) and the Catholic church building of Saint Peter. The Peres Center for Peace and Innovation is located on Jaffa beach. Other attractions, most of which are not public, are located in Jaffa's Ajami district. These include the Collège des frères school, founded in 1882 by Lasallien monks, the Maronite Terra Santa High School and the Catholic Saint Antony's Church, built in 1932. In the south of Jaffa, the cemeteries of Muslims and four Christian communities are located.

Tel Aviv is home to Israel's largest sports club, Maccabi Tel Aviv. Maccabi's basketball team has been among the best in the European league for decades. The football division of the club is the oldest and most successful in the country. Other major sports clubs from Tel Aviv are Hapoel Tel Aviv and Bnei Yehuda Tel Aviv. In 2009, the Tel Aviv Marathon was revived after a 15-year break and has since been held annually. The Sylvan Adams Velodrome was inaugurated in May 2018.

In the foreground of the Azrieli Sarona Tower (2016) in the district of Sarona

Tel Aviv-Jaffa is strongly dominated by the service sector. Diamond processing is also an important area, mainly in the suburb of Ramat Gan. The city is home to the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange and several large banks such as Bank Leumi and Bank Hapoalim. Israeli R&D spending is high, and much is being invested in start-up companies in the area between Tel Aviv and Jerusalem, the country's Silicon Wadi. In 2013, the city counted more than 700 start-ups and was rated by the Wall Street Journal as the world's second most innovative city after Medellín and before New York City. In 2018, Tel Aviv ranked 34th among the world's most important financial centers. As an expression of this political-economic self-understanding, the term start-up nation Israel has spread, a term coined for Israel's economy by the authors Dan Senor and Saul Singer in 2009.

In the 2000s, the economic activities of the downtown Tel Aviv generated 17% of the national gross domestic product. While the unemployment rate was 4.4% in 2011, it rose to a temporary 21% in July 2020 in the context of the global COVID 19 pandemic.

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Ayalon Highway

In Lod, with Ben Gurion Airport, the country's largest airport is located in the surrounding area, with more than 20 million passengers in 2017. Sde-Dov airport, which is close to the city, has been closed down.

road

One major problem is motorized individual traffic on the roads. Congestion is the order of the day, many access roads are chronically blocked. In the area of the city, several motorways run together. The highest Jewish holiday, Yom Kippur, however - as a custom that is also not strictly adhered to by believers, and without a state law - automobile traffic, with only a few emergency services, from sunset to sunset, is canceled for 25 hours, leaving children and adults on foot and bicycles in the empty space of the largest multi-lane city roads. In May 2020, eleven sections of the city's streets were closed to traffic and transformed into pedestrian and cycling zones. E-scooters are becoming increasingly popular.

The public transport in the Tel Aviv-Jaffa area is operated by the bus company Dan with 192 lines. In the greater Tel Aviv area, around 700,000 people use Dan's buses every day. The offer is complemented by a network of common taxis called Scherut. The city is a central hub for Egged bus connections. Tel Aviv Central Bus Station has long been the largest bus station in the world.

In 2020, a pilot project was launched to charge electric buses during the journey via "electronic infrastructure" located under the asphalt ceiling. A 600-meter section of a road near the university was fitted for this purpose.

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Historical reception building of the Jaffa-Jerusalem Railway

In the Jaffa neighborhood, one terminal of the first railway line was located in Israeli territory today: In 1891/1892 the Jaffa-Jerusalem railway line was put into operation. The reception building and the surrounding buildings of the Jaffa station are preserved.

Israel Railways

Increasing individual traffic is one of the main reasons why, in recent years, Israel Railways has significantly improved and expanded regional rail traffic. Tel Aviv is located on the national railway-magistrale, the Naharija-Be’er Sheva railway line. The other routes will take you to Hod Sharon, Modi’in, Ben Gurion Airport and Aschkelon.

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A tram system (Tel Aviv LRT), partly to be run in the tunnel, has been planned for many years. Finally, the construction was commissioned to a Chinese consortium. Construction work on the first line (Red Line) with a length of 23 km started in August 2015. The route will take from Petach's main station to Bat Yam. The launch is scheduled for 2021. In February 2017, the first preparatory works for the construction of the Green Line on the Ibn-Gavirol road started, which will link Tel Aviv to the north with Ramat Aviv and Herzelia. The stations of the Red Line are already being built all over Tel Aviv, Ramat Gan and Petach Tikwa (stand: 26 February 2017). The main problems are: On the one hand, the Red Line was expected to have significantly exceeded its costs recently, and on the other hand, the plans for the further lines were designed to be too small because of the enormous growth in traffic in Tel Aviv.

port

Until 1965, it was a port city (see: Tel Aviv port).

Campus of the University of Tel Aviv in the north of the city

Tel Aviv University, Israel's largest university, is located in the Ramat Aviv district in the north of the city, where the village of asch-Shaich Muwanni was previously located. The second university in the metropolitan area is the Bar Ilan University in Ramat Gan. Together they have more than 50,000 students. To the south of the city, in Rechovot, there is also the Weizmann Institute of Sciences, which in turn counts more than 1000 students, mainly at the doctorate level. On 22 October 2018, the German research community Helmholtz Association opened its fourth foreign office in Tel Aviv. The aim is to further strengthen cooperation with Israeli partners. The International Union of Microbiological Societies and the Stephen Roth Institute are also based in Tel Aviv-Jaffa.

Tel Aviv is also home to the country's first Hebrew-speaking high school, named in 1905 at Herzl-Straße in the center of the city in honor of Theodor Herzl as a Hebrew duchy school. There is also the Buchmann Mehta Music School.

Famous figures from Tel Aviv-Jaffa include former Israeli President Ezer Weizman, actress Ayelet Zurer, model Esti Ginzburg, singers Ofra Haza and Arik Einstein, actor Chaim Topol, astronaut Ilan Ramon, stage mage Uri Geller, as well as the former Israeli Foreign and Justice Ministers Ms Tzipi Livni.